Few Westerners are aware that, for thousands of years, China was far more developed than the West. In this article we
will examine the Confucian culture, that created the basis for the Chinese to make a series of remarkable inventions,
and how these inventions allowed China to achieve a much higher living standard, than existed anywhere else at the time
A Chinese Seed Drill: This technology was used in China for thousands of years before it was introduced into Europe
China is one of the few nations in the world that is currently carrying out great infrastructure projects similar to
those that were essential to the development of the United States. This is exemplified by the Three Gorges Dam, plans
to build railroads to develop the western regions, and China's collaboration with the nations of Asia and Europe in
the development of the Eurasian Land-Bridge. The forward-looking nature of China's policies is exemplified by the fact
that China is the first nation to begin construction of a magnetically levitated train, while projects to build magnetically
levitated trains have been canceled in the West. Few Westerners realize today, that for much of Ancient times,
and the Middle Ages, China was significantly more advanced than Europe. In this article, we will examine a number
of the technological breakthroughs made in ancient China, and the Confucian outlook that encouraged these discoveries.
We will also examine this period of Chinese history, from the standpoint of the principles of economic science that were
developed by Lyndon LaRouche, to see the relationship of these technological breakthroughs to the development of
China's economy. Foolish people today (including, unfortunately, many in Congress and the present Administration),
seem to think that China's identity is defined by the last half-century, i.e., that it was always Communist. However,
that period of Chinese history, from which it has been re-emerging in recent years, represents only {one percent}
of its 5,000-year history! The paradox thus posed is: How has this civilization survived and prospered for five millennia,
to become the most populous nation on Earth?
China's Confucian Tradition
``Now when food meant for human beings is so plentiful as to be thrown to dogs and pigs, you fail to realize that it is
time for garnering, and when men drop dead from starvation by the wayside, you fail to realize that it is time for
distribution. When people die, you simply say, `It is none of my doing. It is the fault of the Harvest.' In what way is
that different from killing a man by running him through, while saying all the time, `It is none of my doing. It
is the fault of the weapon.' Stop putting the blame on the harvest and the people of the whole Empire will come
to you'' (Mencius, Book 1 Part A, 3). The successes of ancient China in economic development were the result of
the influence of the Confucian philosophical school, led by Confucius (551-476 B.C.) himself, and his follower, Mencius
(372-289 B.C.). Both recognized an absolute distinction between mankind and the beasts, asserting that man's nature
was essentially good, and capable of being governed by reason. Confucius taught that society must be governed,
not by selfishness and greed, but by the Chinese concept, ren, which is very similar to the Platonic and Christian
concept of agapee (a Greek word, usually translated as ``love,'' or ``charity''). Confucius proclaimed what the West
would later call the Golden Rule: ``Is there one word which may serve as a rule of practice for all one's life?''
The Master said, ``Is not `reciprocity' such a word? What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.''
Moreover, some 2,200 years before the Preamble to U.S. Constitution was adopted, Confucius and Mencius established
the responsibility of government to promote the General Welfare. Although society was still hierarchically ordered,
with the Emperor exerting absolute rule over his subjects, he was required to ensure their livelihood, or risk losing
the mandate of Heaven. As Mencius stated, ``Heaven sees with the eyes of its people. Heaven hears with the ears
of its people''; he quoted from the ``Book of History,'' to indicate that societies are destroyed, not by natural
disasters, but by human folly: ``When Heaven sends down calamities, There is hope of weathering them; When
man brings them upon himself, There is no hope of escape.'' However, Confucianism was often opposed by antithetical
ideologies, such as Daoism, which had a very destructive effect when they were dominant. When governments strayed
from Confucian principles, the result was often civil war and massive depopulation. In the classical work of
Daoism, the 'Dao Te Ching,' the Lao Zi, (Sixth Century) taught that the king rules by keeping his people ignorant: ``He
empties their minds, and fills their bellies;|... He strives always to keep the people innocent of knowledge and
desires, and to keep the knowing ones from meddling.'' Daoism rejected the Confucian concept of government's responsibility
to promote the General Welfare, arguing that events should simply take their course. The European Renaissance
and the foundation of the nation-state in the 15th Century, in Louis XI's France and Henry VII's England represented
a fundamental advance for all mankind, that allowed human society to achieve rates of growth that were unprecedented
in human history. However, during much of the period prior to the Renaissance, the Chinese economy achieved a level
of productivity, that far exceeded that of Europe. Central to this development, was the Confucian conception of man as
governed by reason, and not bestial emotions, which guided the Chinese to make a remarkable series of discoveries,
many of which were not made in Europe, until much later.
Government That Promotes the General Welfare
Chinese governments carried out numerous initiatives to develop agriculture, which was by far the largest sector of the
economy at that time. The ``Lu shi chun qiu,'' or ``Master Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals,'' written around 250-225
B.C. states: ``The ruler shall order the work of the fields to begin. He shall order the inspectors of the fields
to reside in the lands having an eastern exposure, to repair the borders and boundaries of the fields, to inspect the
paths and irrigation ditches, to examine closely the mounts and hills, the slopes and heights and the plains and valleys
to determine what lands are good and where the five grains should be sown, and they shall instruct and direct the people.
This they must do in person. When the work of the fields had been well begun, with the irrigation ditches traced out
correctly before-hand, there will be no confusion later.'' Governments actively promoted the development of
new technologies in agriculture, and often took initiatives to insure their use by the peasants. This is evidenced
by the fact that over 500 tracts were produced, many of them by government officials, dating back over 2000 years, developing
the science of agriculture. These tracts covered a wide range of crops, and the entire range of techniques and technologies
necessary to develop productivity, such as plowing, sowing, irrigation and cultivation. Chinese writings on
agriculture were vastly superior to those produced in Europe, until as late the 18th Century. Roman works on farming remained
the main writings used throughout the Middle Ages. These Roman tracts dealt with the management of slave estates to
produce wine and olive oil, with little on other crops. Only the Arabs introduced new techniques into Europe, before the
Renaissance. Confucianism--like its distant offspring, the American System of National Economy--rejected
``free trade,'' and promoted government intervention to insure the General Welfare. The "Han shu shi huo zhi' (``Han
Book on Food and Money''), the first economic history of China, published in the First Century A.D., discussed actions
of the government to control speculators, who enriched themselves, through actions that impoverished or starved the people.
For example, the Han dynasty practiced a policy akin to parity-pricing for agriculture, with its ``ever-level price
granaries.'' The government purchased grain during times of surplus, and sold it during times of shortage, in order to
maintain a stable price. The price of many commodities was regulated to reflect the cost of production. Free
trade or ``laissez-faire'' economics, popularized by British East India Company agent Adam Smith, and adopted by the 18th-Century
French Physiocrats, was based on a ``hedonistic principle,'' which Confucianism rejected. Francalois Quesnay, one
of the creators of the Physiocratic doctrine, stated, ``To secure the greatest amount of pleasure with the least possible
outlay should be the aim of all economic effort.'' The Physiocrats would later falsely claim that the success of the
Chinese economy, was proof of their ideology, which asserted that only agriculture was truly productive. However,
to understand agriculture, or any sector of an economy, it is necessary to examine the processes that determine the economy
as a whole. Contrary to the assertions of the French Physiocrats, the success of Chinese agriculture was based on
technological breakthroughs, that gave the Chinese a superior tool-making industry. Indeed, this is illustrated by the
'Han shu,' which states, ``Iron may be called a fundamental in farming.
The Science of Economics
The science of economics was founded by Leibniz and further developed by Lyndon LaRouche. We will discuss some of the basic
concepts expressed in LaRouche's text, "So You Wish to Learn About Economics." Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716),
who founded the science of Economics, studied the application of heat powered machinery to increase the power of the worker.
As LaRouche states, "The increase of man's power over nature is most easily measured as a decrease of the habitable land
area required to sustain an average person." A more accurate measurement is not simply the existing population density,
but the potential level of population that a given technology can support, the "potential relative population-density."
No economy can remain in a fixed level of technology. If a society does not advance to a higher level of technology,
it will run into limits, as it exhausts the resources that are available, at that level of technology. As LaRouche states,
"Only societies whose cultures commit them to successful technological progress, as a policy of practice, are qualified
to survive and to prosper." Technological breakthroughs can occur on two levels: 1) those that increase the
productivity of labor, for example, the introduction of a more efficient plow. 2) a technological revolution that moves society
to a completely higher level of technology, for example, the introduction of electricity. The measure of economic value and
work is the rate of increase of potential relative population-density, relative to it's existing level. A successful
economy must meet a number of conditions. The living standard of the population must rise. However, even as the living standards
of the population rise, investment in capital goods must rise even more rapidly, causing the capital intensity of the economy,
to increase. A successful economy must increase the surplus that it invests in the development of new technology even more
rapidly. It must also make necessary investments in basic infrastructure such as transportation, water supplies, and health
care and education. We will now examine the development of the Chinese economy over the last 2500 years, keeping
these principles in mind. We will see how China's technological breakthroughs led to increases in the potential relative population-density.
Chinese Metallurgy: The Basis For Superior Tools
A Chinese Blast Furnace
The Iron Age is generally considered to have begun around 1700-1500 B.C. The introduction of iron allowed mankind to
develop tools that were stronger and superior to stone or bronze. These improved tools increased productivity. The
manufacture of iron requires two processes: First, the iron, which naturally occurs in the form of an ore of iron oxide, must
be separated from the oxygen and other impurities, in a high-temperature process, which is called reducing or smelting.
The oxygen is removed by combining it with carbon, to form carbon dioxide. This leaves behind the iron in metallic form. The
other impurities form a slag, which is then separated. Second, the raw iron must be manufactured into useful articles.
The earliest smelting of iron ore was done at temperatures below the melting point of iron, which is higher than that
of copper and bronze. Iron, produced by this method, forms a spongy solid, when it is removed from the furnace. Furnaces that
reduced iron ore to its metallic form, while operating below the melting point of iron, were called bloom furnaces.
Once the reduction of iron ore to its metallic form has been accomplished, it must be shaped into a useful article. Transforming
the spongy raw iron into a useful article, was a slow, and very inefficient process, which only allowed the production of
simple shaped utensils, such as swords. However, by no later than the end of the Spring and Autumn Period (770-476
B.C.), the Chinese developed the technology of the blast furnace. This allowed them to heat the ore above its melting point,
and produce cast iron. Among the inventions that made this possible, was the double-action bellows. The manufacture of iron,
using a blast furnace to produce a molten metal, greatly expanded production: The process could be continuous, as the molten
metal flowed from the reducing furnace, was poured into molds, and made into a large variety of products.
Casting a bell
The blast furnace was introduced in Europe, on a wide scale, only in the late 14th Century, almost 2,000 years later. The
use of cast iron was, unfortunately, introduced in Europe largely for the production of cannon; Henry VII constructed the
first blast furnaces in England. The replacement of the bloom furnace with the blast furnace, increased productivity in the
English iron industry 15-fold. The Chinese were able to manufacture superior tools, that the more primitive European
metallurgy was incapable of producing, which led to a substantial advance in productivity throughout the entire economy. As
early as the Third Century B.C., the state of Qin appointed government officials to supervise the iron industry, and penalize
manufacturers who produced substandard products. The Han Dynasty nationalized all cast-iron manufacture in 119 B.C. Around
that time, there were 46 imperial Iron Casting Bureaus throughout the country, with government officials insuring that cast-iron
tools were widely available. This included cast-iron plowshares, iron hoes, iron knives, axes, chisels, saws and awls, cast-iron
pots, and even toys. The Chinese also developed methods for the manufacture of steel that were only matched in the
West, in the recent period. The characteristics of iron alloys are related to the carbon content. Cast iron generally has
a high carbon content, which makes it strong, but brittle. Steel, which is an alloy of iron with a low carbon content, is
strong and more durable. The use of steel in agricultural implements was introduced, on a wide scale, during the Tang Dynasty
(618-907 A.D.). This led to a further improvement in productivity. In the Second Century B.C., the Chinese developed
what became known in the West as the Bessemer process. They developed a method for converting cast iron into steel, by blowing
air on the molten metal, which reduced the carbon content. In 1845, William Kelly brought four Chinese steel experts to Kentucky,
and learned this method from them, for which he received an American patent. However, he went bankrupt, and his claims were
made over to the German, Bessemer, who had also developed a similar process. As early as the Fourth Century A.D.,
coal was used in China, in place of charcoal, as fuel to heat iron to rework the raw iron into finished products. Although
sources on the use of coal in the Song Dynasty (960-1279 A.D.) are limited, the Chinese are reported to have developed the
ability to use coal in the smelting of iron by the Ninth Century. The use of wood to make charcoal was causing deforestation,
which threatened to limit the production of iron. Indeed, the development of the capability to use coal in iron manufacture
is an example of how a new technology allows mankind to overcome limits imposed by existing levels of technology. The rapid
expansion of iron production that occurred under the Song Dynasty, would not have been possible without the introduction of
coal as an energy source in the production of iron. Under the Song dynasty, the iron and steel industry reached
a level that was spectacular, compared to that in Europe. Between 850 and 1050, iron production increased 12-fold. By 1078,
North China was producing more than 114,000 tons of pig iron a year. In 1788, seven hundred years later, England's production
of pig iron was around 50,000 tons.
Chinese Agricultural Productivity: The Result of Superior Technology
Breugel's painting shows a man plowing with an inefficient European plow
``Master Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals'' describes how each spring, the Emperor and his chief ministers initiated the growing
season, with a ceremony in which each took turns plowing the ground. The plows they used were dramatically superior to the
plows that were used in Europe, until the 18th Century. Writer Robert Temple has observed that, ``Nothing underlines the backwardness
of the West more than the fact that for thousands of years, millions of human beings plowed the earth in a manner which was
so inefficient, so wasteful of effort, and so utterly exhausting, that this deficiency of sensible plowing may rank as mankind's
single greatest waste of time and energy.'' Plows prepare the ground for planting, by using an iron share to cut
into the ground, and a mould-board to turn it, burying the weeds and loosening the soil. In 1784, the Scottish agricultural
scientist, James Small, enunciated the following principles of scientific plow design: ``The back of the sock [share]
and mould-board shall make one continued fair surface without any interruption or sudden change.'' Chinese plows, from the
Third Century B.C., already met these requirements. They had a cast-iron mould-board, which was a curved device, that shifted
the soil with the minimum of drag. The European plow simply had a wooden board coming off to the side which turned the soil,
that had been cut.
A Chinese cast iron plow
In 'So You Wish to Learn All About Economics?,' Lyndon LaRouche developed the basic principles of technology. In it, he states,
``Generally speaking, the power applied to the work by a machine is not the same power supplied to the machine as a whole.
A very simple machine, a simple knife blade, illustrates the point: the pressure applied by the sharpened edge of the blade
is vastly greater than the pressure exerted upon the handle of the knife. The power is more concentrated. We measure such
concentration of power as increase of energy-flux density.'' The Chinese plow concentrated the force much more efficiently
on the sharp blade of the plow, with the mould-board designed to turn the soil with a minimum of drag. With the European plow,
the entire straight wooden mould-board pushed against the soil. Therefore, the Chinese plow achieved a far higher energy-flux
density, and accomplished far more work with far less effort. Chinese plows were so efficient, that they required only one
or two animals to pull them. Four, six, or even eight draft animals were needed to pull the inefficient European plow. The
Chinese plow was vastly more efficient than the European plow, both per worker and per unit of energy used. As LaRouche states,
``This difference is Leibniz's definition of the subject matter of technology.''
Row Agriculture and Weeding
Paul de Limbourg and Colombe, October, Tres Riches Heures, Musee Conde, Chantilly
The method used in Europe to plant seeds, as late as the 18th Century, was extremely wasteful and inefficient. A painting
by the Limbourg Brothers for the Duc de Berry (ca. 1415) 'Les Tres Riches Heures,' to illustrate the month of October, demonstrates
the inefficency of the methods for planting that were used in Europe until the 18th Century. In the lower righthand corner,
a peasant tosses seeds, from a sack he carries, onto the ground. Behind him, another peasant is riding a horse that is pulling
a rake. The purpose of the rake was to cover the seeds with soil; a very unreliable method, that left many seeds exposed.
Appropriately, pictured in the lower left, is a flock of birds, who are busily eating the seeds. This method was
so inefficient that most of the seeds never germinated to produce a crop. The plants also grew up in a disorganized mess.
Weeding the fields was impossible, so the plants were left to compete with the weeds until harvesting season. This considerably
reduced the crop. In Europe, it was often necessary to save one-half of the harvest to use as seeds the next year. By
no later than the Sixth Century B.C., the Chinese adopted the practice of growing crops in evenly spaced rows, and using a
hoe to remove the weeds. ``Master Lu's Spring and Autumn Annals,'' states ``If the crops are grown in rows they will mature
rapidly because they will not interfere with each other's growth.
The Seed Drill
At first, the seeds were placed by hand in furrows, in a ridge-and-furrow pattern. Around the Second Century B.C., the Chinese
introduced the seed drill, which became almost universally used in northern China. This device consisted of small plows that
cut small furroughs in the ground, a mechanism that released the seeds, evenly spaced into these furrows, and a brush or roller
that covered the seeds with dirt. The seed drill could be adjusted for different types of soil and seeds. This method of planting
was so much more efficient than sowing the seed by scattering it, that it could achieve an efficiency 10 or even 30 times
greater. It should be easy to see that the difference in productivity between Chinese and European agriculture was
dramatic. The area of land that could be brought under cultivation in Europe was constricted by inferior technology, and by
the need to leave more land as pasture to feed the extra draft animals. Obviously, we are comparing two large areas, over
a long period of time. However, Chinese yields have been estimated at two, five, or even ten times higher than yields in Europe,
at various times. China's higher yields allowed for an increased population density, and also for an increased division of
labor, as we will see below. Eventually these technologies were transmitted to Europe, which led to a large increase
in agricultural production. European travelers were greatly impressed with the wealth of China, and the productivity of its
agriculture. Leibniz and others actively sought out information on Chinese science, industry and agriculture from Europeans
who traveled to China. The Chinese plow and seed drill were introduced into Europe during the 17th Century, and
gradually adopted throughout Europe. Growing crops in rows was championed by British agricultural reformer, Jethro Tull, who
printed a treatise in 1731, to persuade farmers to adopt what he called ``horse-hoeing husbandry.'' Tull published arguments
similar to those used 2000 years earlier in China. Tull also developed one of the first successful European seed drills.
Transportation and infrastructure
Confucian philosophy placed the responsibility for the development of infrastructure on the ruler. The development of inland
water transport, which is far less costly than overland transport for bulk commodities, was essential for the growth of a
large-scale iron industry, and for transporting the large quantities of grain needed by China's cities. Even into modern times,
the length of China's transportation canals has exceeded those of Europe. In 1615, the missionary-scholar Matteo
Ricci, who lived and taught in China for many years, reported, ``This country is so thoroughly covered by an intersecting
network of rivers and canals that it is possible to travel almost anywhere by water.'' He also estimated that there were as
many boats in China as in all of the rest of the world. From 1405 to 1433, Chinese fleets under Admiral Zheng He carried out
seven expeditions reaching as far as Africa and the Red Sea. The first fleet consisted of 317 ships and 26,800 men.
Around 215 B.C., the first contour canal was built in China, which linked the Changjiang (Yangtzee) and the Zhujiang
(Pearl) river systems. The Grand Canal is the longest and largest of all navigation canals in the world. Completed during
the reign of Emperor Yang Di (604-17 A.D.), it extended 1,250 miles from the Changjiang River to Beijing. During the Tang
Dynasty, over 2 million tons of grain were shipped, yearly, north on the canal. This increased to 7 million tons during the
Song Dynasty. Numerous water projects were developed for irrigation, from as early as 600 B.C. Major dike projects
were also built to control rivers, and protect the coastline.
Roads and Horse Harnesses
The Chinese also developed an extensive network of roads. By 210 B.C., 4,000 miles of imperial highways, equal to the distance
built by the Romans, had been constructed in China. The Chinese made major innovations in bridge construction. A number of
bridges were so well designed, that they are still in use over 1,000 years later. One bridge, built in 610 A.D., that still
survives, bears the inscription to its designer, Li Ch'un: ``Such a master-work could never have been achieved, if this man
had not applied his genius to the building of a work which would last for centuries to come.'' Under the Roman Empire,
even the horses had an inferior existence to those living in China. The Romans used a throat-and-girth harness that went around
the horse's neck. This choked the poor horse with the least exertion. In the Third and Fourth Century B.C., the Chinese made
two improvements in horse harnesses, which placed the force of the load on the horse's chest bones, rather than its throat.
Studies have shown that the Chinese harnesses allowed a horse to pull a load six times greater that of a horse in a throat-and-girth
harness. These Chinese harnesses were brought to Europe through Central Asia, thereby liberating Europe's horses from choking
harnesses, and improving Europe's ability to transport goods. This same path was followed by the stirrup, another Chinese
invention which greatly improved man's ability to ride a horse, without falling offand for long distances with less exertion.
Ancient China's Remarkable Cities
It can be easily seen that superior Chinese technology made possible a much higher productivity in agriculture, both
per-person and per-hectare. This allowed the Chinese economy to support a larger proportion of its population in non-agricultural
employment, and allowed the development of a level of urbanization that was unprecedented in Europe until after the 15th-Century
Renaissance. Although the following figures are estimates, the strongest evidence of their accuracy is that the
Chinese had developed a level of technology capable of supporting such large urban centers. The largest city of
the Warring States period (475-221 B.C.), Linzi the capital of the state of Chi, reached a population of approximately 300,000.
In 300 B.C., at least nine cities, containing more than 100,000 people can be identified. Approximately 4.3 million people,
or approximately 14%, lived in urban centers, (defined as 2,000 or more). During the Second Century B.C., Xi'an
was the largest city in the world. Luoyang, the capital of the Eastern Han Dynasty, reached a population of 500,000 during
the First Century A.D. It had an imperial observatory, where Zhang Heng created his seismograph, and advanced his theory that
the Earth was spherical; an Academy, attended by 30,000 students; and a granary for times when food relief was needed.
Under the Song Dynasties (960-1279), China's cities reached their height of development. Lin-an, (Hangzhou) the capital
of the Southern Song reached 2.5 million by 1200. In addition, there were two other cities of 350,000 each, and others were
more than 100,000 each. By contrast, in 1200, the largest cities in Western Europe, were Florence and Venice with about 90,000
each, and Milan with 75,000. The largest European cities during the Middle Ages were Constantinople and Cordoba. Constantinople,
in today's Turkey, reached around 600,000 to 800,000 in 1100. Cordoba, in Muslim Spain, reached 400-500,000, but then declined.
The level of urbanization in China has been estimated at around 20% in 1200. France and England did not reach a 20% level
of urbanization until the 18th Century. It can be easily seen that superior Chinese technology made possible a much higher
productivity in agriculture, both per-person and per-hectare. This allowed the Chinese economy to support a larger proportion
of its population in non-agricultural employment, and allowed the development of a level of urbanization that was unprecedented
in Europe until after the 15th-Century Renaissance. Although the following figures are estimates, the strongest
evidence of their accuracy is that the Chinese had developed a level of technology capable of supporting such large urban
centers. The largest city of the Warring States period (475-221 B.C.), Linzi the capital of the state of Chi, reached
a population of approximately 300,000. In 300 B.C., at least nine cities, containing more than 100,000 people can be identified.
Approximately 4.3 million people, or approximately 14%, lived in urban centers, (defined as 2,000 or more). During
the Second Century B.C., Xi'an was the largest city in the world. Luoyang, the capital of the Eastern Han Dynasty, reached
a population of 500,000 during the First Century A.D. It had an imperial observatory, where Zhang Heng created his seismograph,
and advanced his theory that the Earth was spherical; an Academy, attended by 30,000 students; and a granary for times when
food relief was needed. Under the Song Dynasties (960-1279), China's cities reached their height of development.
Lin-an, (Hangzhou) the capital of the Southern Song reached 2.5 million by 1200. In addition, there were two other cities
of 350,000 each, and others were more than 100,000 each. By contrast, in 1200, the largest cities in Western Europe, were
Florence and Venice with about 90,000 each, and Milan with 75,000. The largest European cities during the Middle Ages were
Constantinople and Cordoba. Constantinople, in today's Turkey, reached around 600,000 to 800,000 in 1100. Cordoba, in Muslim
Spain, reached 400-500,000, but then declined. The level of urbanization in China has been estimated at around 20% in 1200.
France and England did not reach a 20% level of urbanization until the 18th Century.
Successful Economic Development
The development of a large urban population allowed the Chinese economy to achieve a higher division of labor, which was the
basis for further increases in productivity. Mencius described the importance of a large division of labor: "Moreover,
it is necessary for each man to use the products of all the hundred crafts. If everyone must make everything he uses, the
Empire will be led along the path of incessant toil." Mencius Book III Part A.4 China's cities were centers
for education and scientific research, an example of how a society should reinvest it's surplus product, into research to
discover new technologies that further increased the societies potential relative population-density. Furthermore, the higher
educational level created the conditions for China to develop a rich culture in art and poetry. This further increased the
societies potential to make scientific discoveries, since the principles of scientific discovery are the same as the principles
of metaphor in good art and poetry. Although China went through a number of very troubled times, China's economic
development, in many of periods up through the Song dynasty, was remarkably successful for a nation, during this period in
history. China's development during successful periods can be compared to the conditions for development that we discussed
earlier. * The living standard of the population) was increasing. * The level of capital investment was increasing.
This can be seen in areas such as the growth of iron production, which far exceeded any other country on earth. * A surplus
was produced that was invested in crucial areas such as education. For example, during the Song Dynasty, the state school
system was capable of supporting 200,000 students. * Improvements in technology were allowing the Chinese economy to
produce this increased product with less effort. * The Chinese were making significant scientific discoveries that further
improved the productivity of Chinese society. For example, the Chinese invented printing, and China under the Song Dynasty
was the first society with the widespread use of printed books, greatly increasing the transmission of ideas. * All of
this is reflected in the increased potential relative population density, and the increased level of urbanization.
Scientific Discovery is Necessary for Survival
In the 13th Century, China was hit by catastrophe, with the Mongol invasion. The level of genocide is illustrated by the drop
in the population from approximately 120 million in 1200, to half that level, 125 years later. Although China began
to recover, under the Ming and Qing Dynasties (1368-1911), growth fell short of the requirements for sound economic development
that we have described. Problems developed in the Chinese economy, as China failed to maintain a commitment to continual scientific
and technological progress. Although China grew, in area and population, the percentage of the population living
in urban centers actually decreased. Following the Mongol invasion, no city again reached 1 million until 1850. China's population,
which was about 60 million in 1368, increased to some 200 million by 1600, reaching around 430 million in 1850. However, in
1820, the level of urbanization had declined to 7%, a dramatic decrease from the 20% level of 600 years earlier. That
China did not maintain and further increase the level of urbanization during this period, is indicative of its failure to
continue scientific and technological progress. The increased population remained in the countryside, where it continued to
use the same technology. Tragically, rather than creating new industries to utilize the increased population, more labor-intensive
techniques were introduced in agriculture, for example, a plow designed to be pulled by humans. The shift towards
more labor-intensive practices, decreased the output per person, and lowered the potential relative population-density. None
of the conditions, that we have described as necessary for successful economic development were met. The population's living
standard declined. Consequently, the implements used by many of the farmers, at the beginning of the 20th Century, were more
primitive than those described in a 1313 book by Wang Chen. Also, the destructive effect on China of British opium
trafficking during the 19th Century cannot be underestimated. The amount of money looted out of China was so massive that
it caused a severe disruption of the economy and society. By 1900, a great part of government revenues went to pay debts forced
on the Chinese as war reparations, for attempting to defend themselves from the British opium traffickers. Even worse, it
was precisely the intelligentsia, who would have mastered and introduced the new technologies of the West, who were destroyed.
By 1880, there were an estimated 30-40 million opium addicts, or possibly, even more.
China Moves Into the Twenty-first Century
Chinese President Jiang Zemin
The true heirs of the Renaissance, such as Leibniz, sought to form an alliance between Europe and China, combining the best
of both cultures. Leibniz proposed that, ``as the most cultivated and distant peoples [Europe and China] stretch out their
arms to each other, those in between may gradually be brought to a better way of life.'' During the last 25 years,
China has undergone a remarkable period of development. Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping took personal responsibility for relaunching
the nation's commitment to science and technology, in the aftermath of the disastrous Cultural Revolution. Deng grasped its
importance for successful development: ``We often say that man is the most active productive force. `Man' here refers to people
who possess a certain amount of scientific knowledge, experience in production and skill in the use of tools to create material
wealth. There were vast differences between the instruments of production man used, his mastery of scientific knowledge, and
his production experience and skills in the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages and in the 17th, 18th, and 19th Centuries. Today,
the rapid progress of science and technology is speeding up the introduction of new production equipment and new technological
processes.'' Deng stated that fostering in the Chinese people, a conscious commitment to raising their level of scientific
and general knowledge, would allow the them to achieve a higher level of productivity than nations that did not develop this
conscious commitment in their people. China's President Jiang Zemin has also located the development of the creative
powers of the human mind as the central task for China. He stated, ``The progress of human civilization has more and more
convincingly proved that science and technology constitute a primary productive force and an important driving force for economic
development and social progress.... Human wisdom is inexhaustible. Science and technology are a shining beacon of this wisdom.''
The very survival of the United States depends on an agreement for a New Bretton Woods monetary system, which will
necessarily include China. Americans would do well to study the 5,000-year history of China, in order to gain a sense of history,
needed to approach the tasks that both nations face in overcoming the crisis that is now engulfing the world.
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